War for water is not a far cry.

Water is going to be new battleground.

By

Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi

The battles of yesterday were fought over land. Those of today are over energy. But the battles of tomorrow may be over water. Along with population growth and increasing per capita water consumption, massive pollution of the world's surface water systems has placed a great strain on remaining supplies of clean fresh water. Global deforestation, destruction of wetlands, dumping of pesticides and fertilizer into waterways, and global warming are all taking a terrible toll on the Earth's fragile water system.

The combination of increasing demand and shrinking supply has attracted the interest of global corporations who want to sell water for a profit. The water industry is touted by the World Bank as a potential trillion-dollar industry. Water has become the “blue gold” of the 21st century.

In any parts of the world, one major river supplies water to multiple countries. Climate change, pollution and population growth are putting a significant strain on supplies. In some areas renewable water reserves are in danger of dropping below the 500 cubic meters per person per year considered a minimum for a functioning society.

In recent times, several studies around the globe show that climatic change is likely to impact significantly upon freshwater resources availability. In India, demand for water has already increased manifold over the years due to urbanization, agriculture expansion, increasing population, rapid industrialization and economic development. At present, changes in cropping pattern and land-use pattern, over-exploitation of water storage and changes in irrigation and drainage are modifying the hydrological cycle in many climate regions and river basins of India.

Due to warming and climate change rainfall trend has been badly affected worldwide. This change has adversely affected the groundwater recharge.

Water scarcity is expected to become an even more important problem than it is today.

In a case study of Jharkhand state of India groundwater recharging is mainly dependent on rainfall. Though Jharkhand receives sufficient amount of rainfall (900 to 1400 mm/year) but from last several years the rainfall pattern is very erratic. From last two years Ranchi city the capital of Jharkhand state received sufficient rainfall but distribution of rainfall was not uniform. It rained heavily just for two to three days in the month of August and September which resulted in heavy runoff and less infiltration affecting groundwater level.

The process of urbanization and industrialization from last 20 years has caused changes in the water table of Jharkhand State of India as a result of decreased recharge and increased withdrawal. Many of the small ponds which were main source of water in the surrounding areas are now filled for different construction purpose affecting the water table.

By 2100, water scarcity could impact between 1.1 and 3.2 billion people, says a leaked draft of an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report due to be published in April 2007. The report focuses on the consequences of global warming and options for adapting to them. In February 2007 the panel released a report on the scientific basis of climate change.

The IPCC predicts critical water shortages in China and Australia, as well as parts of Europe and the United States. Africa and poor countries such as Bangladesh would be most affected because they were least able to cope with drought.

Major cities worldwide may face a water shortage crisis by 2050 if relevant governments don't react quickly. The water shortage will mostly affect basic daily needs such as drinking, cooking, bathing and washing clothes, and the poor residents of the world's major cities in developing countries are the ones who will suffer most.

"By 2050, big cities that will not have enough water available nearby include Beijing, New Delhi, Mexico City, Lagos and Tehran. China and India will be particularly hard hit unless significant new efforts are taken by their cities,".

There are several principal manifestations of the water crisis.

1. Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people.
2. Inadequate access to water for sanitation and waste disposal for 2.5 billion people.
3. Groundwater over drafting (excessive use) leading to diminished agricultural yields.
4. Overuse and pollution of water resources harming biodiversity.
5. Regional conflicts over scarce water resources sometimes resulting in warfare.

Potential Hot Spots:

Egypt: A coalition led by Ethiopia is challenging old agreements that allow Egypt to use more than 50 percent of the Nile’s flow. Without the river, all of Egypt would be desert.

Eastern Europe: Decades of pollution have fouled the Danube, leaving down-stream countries, such as Hungary and the Republic of Moldova, scrambling to find new sources of water.

Middle East: The Jordan River, racked by drought and diverted by Israeli, Syrian and the Jordanian dams, has lost 95 percent of its former flow.

Former Soviet Union: The Aral sea, at one time the world’s fourth largest inland sea, has lost 75 percent of its water because of diversion programs begun in the 1960s.

There are many other countries of the world that are severely impacted with regard to human health and inadequate drinking water. The following is a partial list of some of the countries with significant populations (numerical population of affected population listed) whose only consumption is of contaminated water:

§ Sudan: 12.3 million

§ Venezuela: 5.0 million

§ Ethiopia: 2.7 million

§ Tunisia: 2.1 million

§ Cuba :1.3 million

Water stress is set to become Asia’s defining crisis of the twenty-first century, creating obstacles to continued rapid economic growth, stoking interstate tensions over shared resources, exacerbating long time territorial disputes, and imposing further hardships on the poor. Asia is home to many of the world’s great rivers and lakes, but its huge population , pollution and exploding economic and agricultural demand for water make it the most water-scare continent on a per capita basis. Many of Asia’s water sources cross national boundaries, and as less and less water is available, international tensions will rise.

The poor management of river basins, environmentally unsustainable irrigation practices, an overuse of groundwater, and the contamination of water sources have all helped aggravate Asian water woes. The over exploitation of subterranean water in the large parts of the Asia has resulted in a rapidly falling groundwater saturation level- known as the water table. In the Gangetic delta, wells have tapped into naturally occurring arsenic deposits, causing millions of people in Bangladesh, and Eastern India including Jharkhand and Bihar to be exposed to high levels of poisonous arsenic in drinking water and staple agricultural products like rice. In some Asian coastal areas, the depletion of groundwater has permitted saline seawater to flow in to replace the freshwater that has been extracted.

The Ganga, which is virtually synonymous with Indian civilisation, is dying. Pollution, over-extraction of water, emaciated tributaries and climatic changes are killing the mighty river, on whose fecund plains live one in 12 people of this planet. The Ganga basin makes up almost a third of India's land area and its rich soil is home to millions of people. However, indiscriminate extraction of water with modern tube wells from the river as well as its basin, coupled with the damming of its tributaries for irrigation, have seriously reduced its flow. Climate change has added to the threat.

RIVERS are the lifeblood of the Bangladesh economy and social life. Its cultural life is also deeply related to rivers. It is extremely unfortunately that its three main rivers, Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Surma-Meghna are dying.

As per a survey of the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), there are three hundred and ten rivers in Bangladesh. Out of these fifty-seven are border rivers, the condition of one hundred and seventy five is miserable, and sixty five are almost dead. Eighty percent of the rivers lack proper depth. The latest study reveals that one hundred and seventeen rivers are either dead or have lost navigability . Such rivers/canals include Brahamaputra, Padma, Mahananda, Gorai, Meghna, Titas, Gomati, Kushiara, Dhaleswari, Bhairab, Sitalksha, Turag etc.

As per a report of BWDB, India is controlling the water of 57 rivers along with the Farakka barrage. Because of inadequate facilities for dredging, these rivers have become canals. Additionally, India has withdrawn water of several rivers including Surma, Kushiara and Mahananda. Sluice gates have been constructed on the rivers Senoa, Jamuna, Panga, Pan, Hatoori and Sui (situated near Panchagarh).

Apart from the scourge of Farakka barrage, a new dam, named Tipaimukh dam, is under construction in India.

Asia will continue to have the world’s largest number of people without basic or adequate access to water. The Asian water sector is plagued by serious problems, including inadequate infrastructure and poor system maintenance, financially strapped utilities, low-cost recovery, growing pollution, watershed degradation, and unsustainable groundwater extraction. Owing to leaks and system inefficiencies, a sizable portion of the water supply is lost before reaching the consumer.

As water distress intensifies and global warming accelerates, local, national, and interstate disputes over water are likely to become endemic in Asia.

Water, for its part, could trigger increased conflicts within and between states, and open new political disputes in Asia. Water shortages, likely to be aggravated by fast-rising use and climate change, pose a potential threat to political stability, economic modernization, public health, food security, and internal cohesion in a number of Asian states. A study of Asia’s biggest rivers-the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Yangtze, the Yellow, and the Ganges-by different experts has found that the “ upstream snow and ice reserves of these basins-important in sustaining seasonal water availability- are likely to be affected substantially by climate change,” although the extent of impact will vary from basin to basin.

The sharing of waters of the river Kaveri had been the bone of contention of a serious conflict between the Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The genesis of this disparity, itself, lies in two controversial agreements, one signed in 1892 and another in 1924, between the Madras Presidency and the Princely State of Mysore.

The state of Karnataka feels that it has not got its due share of water utilization viv a vis Tamil Nadu. Karnataka claims that these agreements were skewed heavily in favour of the Madras Presidency, and has since demanded a renegotiated settlement based on "equitable sharing of the waters". Tamil Nadu, on the other hand, pleads that it has already developed almost 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km²) of land and as a result has come to depend very heavily on the existing pattern of usage. Any change in this pattern, it says, will adversely affect the livelihood of millions of farmers in the state.

Parched throats in Rajasthan are crying hoarse over Gujarat allegedly stealing its share of the Mahi river waters by constructing the Sujalam Sufalam irrigation canal.

The issue has the potential of starting a water war between the two neighbours after Ashk Ali Tak, a Congress MP from Rajasthan, raised the issue in Rajya Sabha recently. Tak says Gujarat did not take Rajasthan into confidence before launching the project as stipulated in an agreement signed between the two states in 1966.

Such is the deep nexus between water and global warming that the increased frequency of climate change-driven extreme weather events like hurricanes, droughts and flooding, along with the projected rise of ocean levels, is likely to spur greater interstate and intrastate migration- especially of the poor and the vulnerable- from delta and coastal regions to the hinterland.

As the planet warms, water grow scarcer. Global warming will endanger the monsoon, which effects much greater than those of drought alone-particularly in India given that 70 percent of India’s rainfall comes from the monsoon.

The declining snow cover and receding glaciers in the Himalayan state of Jammu and Kashmir could trigger renewed hostilities between India and Pakistan, neighbouring states in the South Asian region that are at odds on a host of issues.

The two countries share the Indus River, one of the longest rivers in the world. The river rises in southwestern Tibet and flows northwest through the Himalayas. It crosses into the Kashmir region, meandering to the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the territory.

Pakistan and India have long been embroiled in a territorial dispute over Kashmir, but have so far managed to uphold a World Bank-mediated Indus Water Treaty (IWT) that provides mechanisms for resolving disputes over water sharing. Any drastic reduction in the availability of water in the region has the potential of causing a war between the hostile south Asian neighbors.

The Indus water system is the lifeline for Pakistan, as 75 to 80 percent of water flows to Pakistan as melt from the Himalayan glaciers. This glacier melt forms the backbone of irrigation network in Pakistan, with 90 percent of agricultural land being fed by the vastly spread irrigation network in Pakistan, one of the largest in the world. Any disruption of water flow would cause a grave impact on agriculture produce in Pakistan.

The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing treaty between the Republic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development). The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President of Pakistan Mohammad Ayub Khan. The treaty was a result of Pakistani fear that since the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India, it could potentially create droughts and famines in Pakistan, especially at times of war. However, India did not revoke the treaty during any of three later Indo-Pakistani Wars.

Until now, the Indus Water Treaty has worked well, but the impact of climate change would test the sanctity of this treaty. Under the treaty signed in 1960, the two countries also share five tributaries of the Indus river, namely, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. The agreement grants Pakistan exclusive rights over waters from the Indus and its westward-flowing tributaries, the Jhelum and Chenab, while the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rivers were allocated for India’s use.

Transboundary water sharing between India and Pakistan will become an extremely difficult proposition as surface water would become a scarce commodity with the depletion of water reserves up in the mountains.

The sharing of the Ganges waters is a long-standing issue between India and Bangladesh over the appropriate allocation and development of the water resources of the Ganges River that flows from northern India into Bangladesh. The issue has remained a subject of conflict for almost 35 years, with several bilateral agreements and rounds of talks failing to produce results.

The Farakka Barrage is a dam on the Bhagirathi river located in the Indian state of West Bengal, roughly 10 km (6.2 mi) from the border with Bangladesh. India uses it to control the flow of the Ganges river. The dam was built to divert the Ganges River water into the Hooghly River during the dry season, from January to June, in order to flush out the accumulating silt which in the 1950s and 1960s was a problem at the Kolkata Port on the Hooghly River. Bangladesh claims that its rivers were drying up because of excess drawing of water by India. In May 1974 a joint declaration was issued to resolve the water–sharing issue before the Farakka Barrage was put into operation. This was followed by an interim agreement in 1975 to allow India to operate feeder canals of the barrage for short periods.

However, India withdrew from the process of negotiations by September 1976 as both nations grew apart after the killing of Sheikh Mujib and establishment of military rule. Bangladesh protested India's unilateral action at a summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and at the 31st session of the U.N. General Assembly. At the urging of other nations and the U.N., both India and Bangladesh agreed to resume dialogue, but with no results.

In China, at present, the government estimates that 30 million people are already being displaced by climate change. Some authorities set the figure higher, at up to 72 million. A one-meter rise of sea level would flood of all of Shanghai, plus 96 percent of the province around it. Egypt will loose 12-15 percent of its arable land, creating 14 million refugees. As the sea encroached, salt water would move into the foreshortened Nile, threatening the irrigated lands that produce almost all of Egypt’s food.

In some areas, more destructive river flooding is also predicted, for instance through a heavier than usual monsoon. In Bangladesh, melting glaciers in the Himalayas would add to such floods.

Rising sea levels also threaten delta areas-such as the Mekong in the Vietnam, the Yangtze in China, the Irrawaddy in Myanmar, the Tigris- Euphrates in Iraq, the Indus in Pakistan, the Orinoco in Venezuela and the Amazon in Brazil-that hold more than one billion (two billion by 2050).

China’s water resources are overallocated, inefficiently used, and grossly polluted by human and industrial wastes, to the point that vast stretches of rivers are dead and dying, lakes are cesspools of waste, groundwater aquifers are over-pumped and unsustainably consumed, uncounted species of aquatic life have been driven to extinction, and direct adverse impacts on both human and ecosystem health are widespread and growing.

The major watersheds of the country all suffer severe pollution. Three hundred million people lack access to safe drinking water. Desertification, worsened by excessive withdrawals of surface and groundwater, is growing in northern China. In 2005, the Chinese government acknowledged that 50,000 environmentally related protests occurred that year, many of which were related to water degradation.

The OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ) estimates that hundreds of millions of Chinese are drinking water contaminated with inorganic pollutants such as arsenic and excessive fluoride, as well as toxins from untreated factory wastewater, inorganic agricultural chemicals, and leeching landfill waste . In an extreme indication of the growing concern over water quality, local farmers in contaminated regions grow grain with poor quality water, sell that grain, and purchase grain from other parts of China they believe has safer water. In the Huai He basin, widely acknowledged to be extremely badly polluted, there are numerous villages where no young men have been able to pass the physical examination for entering the Army, which some analysts ascribe to water-related illnesses and contamination.

The shrinking of China’s rivers at their mouths has long been observed and attributed to overuse and excessive withdrawal of water along those rivers. Recently, however, drying of China’s major rivers has also been observed at the source and headwaters of those rivers, leading the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) to conclude that climate change is already having an effect. The water resources of the Sanjiangyuan region - the headwaters of the Yangtze, Yellow, and Lancang rivers – depend on glacier melt and appear to be diminishing. This region, also known as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, provides 25 percent of the water flowing down theYangtze River, 49 percent of the flow of the Yellow River, and 15 percent of the flow ofthe Lancang River. The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau used to host 36,000 glaciers covering an area of 50,000 sq km, but their area has shrunk by 30 percent over the past century. In 2007, Chinese scientists warned that major glaciers in China, including the most well-known “Glacier No. 1” at the headwaters of the Urumqi River in the Tianshan mountains had decreased by over 10 percent in the past four decades and that the rate of retreat is accelerating. The loss of river flows from the dwindling Glacier No. 1 is threatening oases in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.

China’s water resources are unevenly distributed. Because much of China’s water policy revolves around massive transfers of water from one region to another, or large infrastructure projects that affect multiple political jurisdictions, there are growing regional conflicts over water-management decisions.

In one of the most serious examples of regional water conflict, there is a long history of violence over allocations of water from the Zhang River, a tributary of the Hai He that originates in Shanxi Province and flows through both Henan and Hebei provinces. Conflicts over excessive water withdrawals and the subsequent water shortages have been worsening for over three decades between villages in Shenxian and Linzhou counties. In the 1970s, militias from competing villages fought over withdrawals. In 1976, a local militia chief was shot to death in a clash between Shexian’s Hezhang village and Linzhou’s Gucheng village over the damming of Zhang River. The violence escalated significantly in the 1990s: in December 1991, Huanglongkou village of Shenxian county and Qianyu village of Linzhou city actually exchanged mortar fire over the construction of new water diversion facilities. In August 1992, bombs were set off along a distribution canal collapsing part of the canal and causing flooding and economic losses. Despite efforts to mediate the dispute, violence continued in the late 1990s with confrontations, mortar attacks, and bombings, leading up to a clash on Chinese New Year in 1999 that reportedly killed nearly a hundred villagers and caused millions of dollars of damages to homes and water facilities. Some progress has been made to negotiate a settlement to this dispute, but new projects in the region may fuel new disputes.

The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (L.T.T.E.) in the year 2006 shut down the Maavilaru dam's sluice gate near the town of Kantalai in the northeastern Trincomalee district, which cut off water supplies for 60,000 people in government-controlled areas. This led the Sri Lankan military to commence an aerial bombardment of Tiger positions and a ground offensive to gain control of the reservoir's control point. The Tigers claimed that their actions were sparked by the government's failure to build a water tower to supply L.T.T.E.-controlled areas and responded by going on the offensive in Mutur. More than 500 people were killed over the disputed waterway.

Vietnam has engaged in several dam construction projects without consulting with Cambodia, as has Laos. Coupled with long-standing historical animosities between states in the region such as between China and Vietnam and Thailand and Myanmar, as well as internal frictions caused by poverty and a number of long-standing insurgencies, water disputes act as a potential catalyst for regional conflict.

The crisis over water in the Middle East is escalating. Despite existing agreements, dwindling resources – increasingly affected by pollution, agricultural/industrial initiatives and population growth – have elevated the strategic importance of water in the region. For Middle Eastern nations, many already treading the razor’s edge of conflict, water is becoming a catalyst for confrontation – an issue of national security and foreign policy as well as domestic stability. Given water’s growing ability to redefine interstate relations, the success of future efforts to address water sharing and distribution will hinge upon political and strategic approaches to this diminishing natural resource.

In the Middle East, water resources are plummeting. While representing 5% of the total world population, the Middle East & North Africa (MENA) region contains only 0.9% of global water resources.¹ The number of water-scarce countries in the Middle East and North Africa has risen from 3 in 1955 (Bahrain, Jordan and Kuwait) to 11 by 1990 (with the inclusion of Algeria, Israel and the Occupied Territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen). Another 7 are anticipated to join the list by 2025 (Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Libya, Morocco, Oman and Syria).

In addition to its scarcity, much of Middle Eastern water stems from three major waterways: the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and Jordan River systems. Mutual reliance on these resources has made water a catalyst for conflict, spurring confrontations such as the 1967 War (fomented by Syria’s attempts to divert water from Israel) and the Iran-Iraq War (which erupted from disputes over water claims and availability). Recognition of water’s role as an obstacle in interstate relations has spurred numerous attempts at resolution, including diplomatic efforts (most notably the 1953-1955 U.S.-brokered Johnston negotiations) and bilateral and multilateral treaty efforts, ranging from the 1959 Agreement for the Full Utilization of Nile Waters to the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian Treaty.

Along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Turkey and Syria are currently approaching a massive confrontation over water resources. Relations between the two countries, strained at best, have been exacerbated since the 1980s by growing tensions over water, which have brought them to the brink of war several times.

The Jordan River Basin has also emerged as a flashpoint for conflict over water. Resources in the area, suffering serious overuse as a result of pollution and population growth, have increasingly impacted interstate relations.

Between Jordan and Israel, water resource issues are reaching a fever pitch. Despite the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian Treaty – which established comprehensive guidelines regulating the distribution, preservation and availability of water from the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers – conflicts over water have risen to the forefront of relations between the two countries. Jordan, fed only by underground sources and the Jordan River, has experienced an escalating water deficit – one that is expected to reach 250 million cubic meters (nearly 1/3^rd of current annual consumption) by 2010. At the same time, Israel – currently utilizing almost all available water from its National Water System (consisting of the West Bank Mountain Aquifer, the Coastal Aquifer and the Lake Kinneret Basin) – has been forced to resort to overexploitation of available resources for expanding agricultural and industrial ventures. As a result, water has become a critical bone of contention between the two countries.

The historically troubled relations between Israel and the Palestinians have also been magnified by water. Mutual reliance on the West Bank Mountain Aquifer, which rests atop the demarcating border of the disputed West Bank territory (and currently provides 1/3^rd of Israel’s water supply and 80% of Palestinian consumption), has created friction between the State of Israel and the Palestinian Authority.

Saudi Arabia is another country rapidly approaching a dramatic crisis over water. In Saudi Arabia’s case, however, the crisis stems from the country’s lack of rivers and permanent bodies of water, as a result of which it relies heavily upon underground water sources for its agricultural and potable water supply. At present, 90% of Saudi Arabia’s non-renewable deep-well water is utilized for agricultural purposes. These resources, already precariously low, have been significantly eroded in recent years as a consequence of the Persian Gulf conflict. Iraq’s burning of oil wells during the Gulf War further contaminated underground water resources already degraded by pollution seepage from agricultural activity, creating a deficit that has failed to be resolved to date, despite significant Saudi desalinization attempts.

The state of water resources has significantly affected the nature and stability of the current Saudi regime. Though buoyed by oil revenues, which have facilitated massive desalinization efforts, Saudi Arabia has failed to adequately address its growing water concerns. Consequently, Saudi Arabia has begun to seek other water sources, a focus that has had pronounced effects on the region. Saudi Arabia’s extensive exploration into the underground aquifers in its Eastern Province has reduced the agriculture and water availability of Qatar and Bahrain. The resulting political tension points to an emerging conflict over water resources in the Persian Gulf Peninsula, one that may engulf both Saudi Arabia and her neighbors.

When President Anwar Sadat signed the peace treaty with Israel in 1979, he said Egypt will never go to war again, except to protect its water resources. King Hussein of Jordan has said he will never go to war with Israel again except over water and the Untied Nation Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali has warned bluntly that the next war in the area will be over water.

From Turkey, the southern bastion of Nato, down to Oman, looking out over the Indian Ocean, the countries of the Middle East are worrying today about how they will satisfy the needs of their burgeoning industries, or find drinking water for the extra millions born each year, not to mention agriculture, the main cause of depleting water resources in the region.

All these nations depend on three great river systems, or vast underground aquifers, some of which are of `fossil water' that cannot be renewed.

Iran for example had 2,025 cubic meter per capita in 1990, the figure projected for 2025 is between 776 and 860 cubic meter.

Libya's population of 4.5 million in 1990 is projected to increase to 12.9 million in 2025 and the oil revenues enabled the government to increase dependency on desalination, but they diverted - or rather wasted massive resources on a white elephant, the great man made river to mine fossil water in the south.

Egypt's 58 Million in 1990 are projected to reach 101 Millions in 2025 and already approaching water scarcity: its per capita availability is 1,017.

The main conflicts in Africa during the next 25 years could be over that most precious of commodities - water, as countries fight for access to scarce resources. Results from a recent study of current living conditions throughout Africa report that more than one billion people do not have enough clean water to provide for their basic human needs. As a result, more than 2,500 children are dying each day. Devastating drought is once again threatening the lives of African men, women and children. In the months ahead, as many as 14 million people will be at risk of starvation and malnutrition. Food shortages are particularly severe in eastern and southern Ethiopia, Sudan and Uganda are also being affected.

Potential 'water wars' are likely in areas where rivers and lakes are shared by more than one country, according to a UN Development Programme (UNDP) report.

The possible flashpoints are the Nile, Niger, Volta and Zambezi basins.

The report predicts population growth and economic development will lead to nearly one in two people in Africa living in countries facing water scarcity or what is known as 'water stress' within 25 years.

With a growing population and a drying climate, Australia – like many rich nations – is running out of water. Solutions are not easy nor cheap ... and may require cities to tap their sewers. Adelaide has a reputation for having the worst water in Australia. Many Adelaidians prefer tank water, or bottled water; most have in-built water filters in their kitchens.

Adelaide takes its water from the Murray River. By the time it gets to Adelaide, countless small towns have extracted their local supply and returned their waste to the river.

The irony is that Australians live on the driest inhabited continent in the world - only Antarctica gets less rain. Of all the places in the world where it is essential to make the most of every drop of water, Australia is it. As Australia's population grows, this over-allocation of water is only likely to get worse. There will be more washing and cleaning, more drinking and, most importantly, more crops to grow to feed swelling populations - both locally and in export markets.

Water restrictions have been enacted in many cities and regions in Australia, which is the Earth's driest inhabited continent, in response to chronic water shortages resulting from the drought. Depending upon the location, these can include restrictions on watering lawns, using sprinkler systems, washing vehicles, hosing pavement, refilling swimming pools, etc. Increasing population, evidence of drying climates, coupled with corresponding reductions in the supply of drinking water have to led various state governments to consider alternative water sources to supplement existing sources, and to implement "water inspectors" who can issue penalties to those who waste water.

Nearly every Australian city will have to find new water supplies over the next decade as climate change and population growth stretch the nation's already limited water resources. The annual report by the Water Services Association of Australia found that after a decade of punishing drought, authorities in all of Australia's mainland capital cities will need to find new ways to provide water, such as desalination and recycling, in the next five to 10 years.

Do countries have the right to use water flowing through their territory as they wish? Or do they have an obligation to consider the needs of neighbors living further downstream?

That's been a constant dilemma for the Central Asian states since they became independent after the Soviet break-up.

Much of Central Asia's water flows from the mountains of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, leaving downstream countries Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan dependent and worried about the effects of planned hydropower plants upstream.

Tashkent fears that those two countries' use of water from Central Asia's two great rivers -- the Syr Darya and Amu Darya -- to generate power will diminish the amount reaching Uzbekistan, whose 28 million inhabitants to make up Central Asia's largest population.

After the collapse of communism in the 1990s, a dispute arose between Hungary and Slovakia over a project to dam the Danube River. It was the first of its type heard by the International Court of Justice and highlighted the difficulty for the Court to resolve such issues decisively. There are 17 European countries directly reliant on water from the Danube so there is clear potential for conflict if any of these countries act selfishly.

Experts worry that dwindling water supplies could likely result in regional conflicts in the future. For example, in oil-and-gas rich Central Asia, the upstream countries of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan hold 90 percent of the region's water resources, while Uzbekistan, the largest consumer of water in the region, is located downstream.

Water has also become a major source of tension between Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Turkey, located upstream of the Tigris and Euphrates river systems, began the Southeast Anatolia (GAP) Project in 1990, which will give it extensive control over the flow of Euphrates water and is expected to double Turkey's irrigated farmland.

The distribution of water resources in Europe is far from even, and is beginning to be the source of some significant problems. Europeans are becoming more concerned with how much water is available, and the quality of the water resources they use.

In Iceland, over 600,000 cubic meters of water are available per capita. This contrasts sharply with the densely populated nations of Western Europe. Many countries, such as Malta, also suffer severely from a generally dry climate.

In Russia, most of the population relies on water taken from rivers. Other European nations also receive water from surface sources, which often run over several countries, creating the potential for debates over water resources.

Belgium uses 70% of the water supplies available to it every year. Different European countries vary in how much water they withdraw from their supplies every year, ranging from 156 cubic meters in Luxembourg to over 4,000 in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

Water is used for a variety of purposes in Europe. In the European Union, 53% of water is used for industry, 26% is used for agriculture, and 19% is used for domestic purposes.

In countries such as Austria and Switzerland, limited water resources are being used with an increased degree of efficiency. Despite efficiency gains, water use is still climbing in Europe.

Many parts of Europe do not have as much water as they need. In 60% of European urban and industrial areas, water resources are overexploited. Now that the problem is becoming of increasing concern, governments are searching for solutions domestically and internationally.

There is a famous Chinese proverb that warns “not only can water float a boat, it can sink it also.”

And with global water shortages on the horizon, climate change supporters say an extreme response will be needed from international governments to stem the potential for conflict it will create around the world.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Waters_Treaty

http://www.worldwater.org/data20082009/ch05.pdf

http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-15/ahmedabad/30519929_1_sujalam-sufalam-gujarat-minister-rajasthan

http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=132549

http://archive.unu.edu/update/archive/issue36_2.htm

http://www.rferl.org/content/Battle_Lines_Being_Drawn_In_Central_Asian_Water_Dispute/1611679.html

http://www.japanfocus.org/-Chietigj-Bajpaee/2207

Is the sea level rise is recent phenomenon or it has happened in earlier geological ages too?

Over the past 20,000 years the oceans have risen by more than 110 meters.

by

Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi

The U.S. is shrinking –physically. It has lost nearly 20 meters of beach from its East coast during the 20th century. The oceans have risen by roughly 17 centimeters since 1900 through expansion (warmer water taking up more space) and the ongoing melt down of polar ice. That increase, however, is a small fraction compared with what’s to come. Sea level is of great concern to human beings especially to those living in coastal regions. India has the sixth longest coastline in the world and the fate of the occupants of the coastal areas critically depends, among other things, on the abrupt rise and fall of the sea level.

Is the sea level rise is recent phenomenon or it has happened in earlier geological ages too? Different researches have shown that our planet earth has seen drastic sea level changes in past geological times.

Before going in detail first we should understand the causes for relative sea level changes. This is a topic of utmost importance in sea level measurements, be they present day or paleo type. Many processes can bring about an apparent sea level changes at any particular location. These processes are of two types, (a) which are caused by land movements and (b) caused by changes in sea surface level. Local or regional uplift or subsidence (like near Dwarka, India) of land, changes of atmospheric pressure, winds, ocean currents, changes in the volume of ocean basins due to volcanic activity, marine sediment deposition, isostatic adjustments of the earth’s crust under the sea or sea floor spreading, changes in the mass of water brought about by melting or accumulation of ice sheets and alpine glaciers ( manifests in the form of salinity lowering) and thermal expansion or concentration of ocean waters when they become warmer or colder. The last two processes are the most important ones that bring about global changes which can result from climate change, e.g. warming as a result of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The subject of sea-level variations over the last 18,000 years is treated in detail by different geo scientists. They emphasized two sharp rises, to about +30 m at about 15,000 years ago and to about +20m near 8500 years ago. Since 7000 years ago the amplitudes of sea- level change have been increased.

A theory proposed by different researchers dates the flooding of the Black Sea basin to an earlier time and from a different cause. According to research, global warming beginning from about 16,000 years ago caused the melting of the Scandinavia Ice Sheet, resulting in massive river discharge that flowed into the Caspian Sea, raising it to as much as 50 metres (160 ft) above normal present-day levels. The rise was extremely rapid and the Caspian basin could not contain all the floodwater, which flowed from the northwest coastline of the Caspian Sea, through the Kuma-Manych Depression and Kerch Strait, over the current eastern coastline of the Sea of Azov into the ancient Black Sea basin. By the end of the Pleistocene this would have raised the level of the Black Sea by some 60 to 70 metres (200 to 230 ft) 20 metres (66 ft) below its present-day level, and flooding large areas that were formerly available for settlement or hunting.

A catastrophic flood refilled the Mediterranean Sea 5.3 million years ago, at the beginning of the Zanclean age that ended the Messinian salinity crisis.The flood occurred when Atlantic waters found their way through the Strait of Gibraltar into the desiccated Mediterranean basin, following the Messinian salinity crisis during which it repeatedly became dry and re-flooded, dated by general consensus to before the emergence of modern humans.

Global sea level rose by about 120 m during the several millennia that followed the end of the last ice age (approximately 21,000 years ago), and stabilized between 3,000 and 2,000 years ago. Sea level indicators suggest that global sea level did not change significantly from then until the late 19th century. The instrumental record of modern sea level change shows evidence for onset of sea level rise during the 19th century. Estimates for the 20th century show that global average sea level rose at a rate of about 1.7mm yr–1.


During much of the Paleozoic, the rock record shows, sea level stood quite high relative to the continents. But there were also substantial fluctuations. Continental flooding was pervasive, but it was intermittent.

The key to understanding how sea level changes are recorded in rocks is very simple: Most sedimentary rocks were originally deposited in water, and all bodies of water accumulate sediments at their bottoms. Rainfall and erosion ensure that the rocks of the continents will be worn down, and the detritus of that process is carried by rivers to lakes and the ocean, where it settles out in layers of sediment. Furthermore, the coarse material drops out first, close to the shore line, while the finer grains remain suspended and are carried further out to sea. Thus the type of sediment that is formed depends on the water depth. Even by using just these fairly obvious principles, a great deal can be learned about the sea level changes that occurred in the Paleozoic.

The sea level lowering was not an isolated event, but part of several cycles of rising and lowering seas near the end of the Permian period that must have played havoc with life in the shallow waters around the continental margins. When sea level fell, not only were vast shallow-water habitats removed from existence, but also great quantities of organic matter that has been deposited in the sediments, the remains of shallow-water-dwelling organisms were exposed to the atmosphere.

Coral reefs grow very close to the sea level. Raise sea level by a few meters, and the corals die- but new ones grow on top of them, closer to the new ocean surface. By continuously growing upward, the reefs keep pace as water levels rise, and they are thus very good indicators of past sea level. In places like the Caribbean such reefs have been cored and studied, and their ages determined using the Carbon 14 method and other techniques. Corals that lived near the sea surface thousands of years ago are now found at depths of tens of meters, buried in the reef by their progeny. By measuring their ages, and the depth at which they now reside, a record of past ocean levels has been constructed. It illustrates that the most recent low stand of sea-water occurred at the same time the oxygen isotope data indicate a glacial maximum, about 20,000 years ago. It also indicates that there have been two or three times over the past 20,000 years when sea level rose more rapidly, almost instantaneously in geologic terms, presumably in response to especially rapid melting of the ice sheets. Over the past 20,000 years the oceans have risen by more than 110 meters, covering vary large areas that were dry land at the peak of the glacial episode.

Reference:

Frakes, L.A. 1979. Climates throughout geologic time. Elsevier.

Macdougall, J.D. 1996. A short history of planet earth. Mountains, mammals, fire and ice. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Narayana, A.C. (Ed) 2002. Late Quaternary Geology of India and Sea level changes. Memoir, 49. Geological soc. of Ind., Bangalore.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outburst_flood
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090209205314.htm
http://judithcurry.com/2011/07/12/historic-variations-in-sea-levels-part-1-from-the-holocene-to-romans/

Concept of the Ancient Floods with special reference to Indus Valley Civilization.

Floods played an important role in the decline of Harappan civilization.

by

Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi

“And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come before me; fir the earth is filled with violence through them with the earth…And it came to pass after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth. In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life…were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened. And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights. And the waters returned off the earth continually; and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated…”

Some might feel that times have not changed very much since The Flood, but in this article I am concerned with human morality, frailty and punishment- though it is interesting to note that the great catastrophic flood which is recorded in the mythology of other races through out the world is attributed to punishment by a deity of one form or another for the sins of mankind.

A world – destroying flood ( “world” in those days being localized rather than planetary) is a common legend in the ancient history of many races apart from the Hebrews; for example, the Americans, Babylonians, Indians, Persians, Polynesians and Syrians.

Archaeologists in Mesopotamia have discovered evidence of severe flooding at various levels- in particular a stratum of clay eight feet deep, excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley at Ur, which he identified with the biblical flood.

The Babylonian records say that some 4,000 years old refer to a “dark cloud” that encompassed the planet and intense fire that scorched the land- “all that was bright was turned into darkness. For six days a deluge of water driven by hurricane winds swept over earth, destroying all forms of life and changing the face of the planet.”

Hindu legend tells of the appearance in the sky of a rapidly expanding dark shape in the form of boar, which suddenly broke into loud thunder. The shape hurtled into the water which, convulsed by the motion, rose in enormous waves.

The same basic story is related in the mythology of other races and countries, including even the Celts of Britain and the Maoris of New Zealand.

Research since the 1970s suggests that there were three global super-floods: 15,000 to 14,000 years ago; 12,000 to 11,000 years ago; and 8,000 to 7,000 years ago. The second period ties in with the date Plato ascribed in the Timaeus and Critias to the destruction by earthquakes and flooding of Atlantis, and with the Tamil myth of the submerging of the fabled land of Kumari Kandam. Kumari Kandam, an antediluvian civilization said to have existed thousands of years ago around south India. It is believed to have been a great center of learning with magnificent academies which may have left a legacy of cartographic and astronomical knowledge which exists today in the ancient Indian texts.

There is also strong evidence that nearly half the total melt water released at the end of the last Ice Age was concentrated into these three relatively short periods. Such events would have had a momentous impact on the human inhabitants at that time, leaving a marked impression on oral tradition, the original transmitter of all ancient myths.

Geological record indicates that during Late Pleistocene glaciation, waters of the Himalaya were frozen and that in place of rivers there were only glaciers, masses of solid ice. As and when the climate became warmer, the glaciers began to break up and the frozen water held by them surged forth in great floods, inundating the alluvial plains in front of the mountains.

Floods played an important role in the decline of Harappan civilization. Several individual sites like Dholavira show that floods and rising sea levels leading to increased salinity made them uninhabitable. The Rann of Kutch, for example, was inhabited during the Harappan era. Dholavira, a major Harappan site is located in the Rann.

When we use the term ‘floods’ with the reference to the Harappan civilization, it is important to distinguish between the river floods and encroachment by the flooding ocean due to rising sea levels. The latter is recorded scientific fact.

In coastal areas, floods do not necessarily mean riverine floods but tidal waves and rising sea levels. The Mausala Parva of the Mahabharata seems to record a tidal wave leading to the destruction of Dwarka. The description in the Mausala suggests a massive tidal wave triggered by underwater volcanic activity- sometimes known as the tsunami. There are far more deadly than river floods. More seriously, if it is part of permanent environmental change, their effect can be permanent. This seems to have the case with coastal areas of the Harappan civilization.

Rising sea levels can be devastating for coastal settlements since there is no recovering from it. We find records of floods in the literature all across the ancient worlds. The better known among these ( outside India) are the Bible and the ancient Mesopotamian work known as the Epic of Gilgamesh. The question is : can we find any record of floods on the Indus seals? We have found at least two that record the terrifying effects of floods.

The first of these is a seven – sign message inscribed in the compact form characteristic of most Harappan writing. It is written from right to left and may be deciphered as follows.


Decipherment: saka-ta-va-sa-ma-dra (right –to- left in original)

Reading : Śakta vāsa samudrah


Written in the concise Harappan (sutra) style, this may be rendered into English as follows: “ The sea has entered dwelling places.” The writing on the next seal is more vivid and poignant-almost an anguished cry for help. It is written from left to right which is the more common mode on the Harappan seals. With a total of sixteen signs it is one of the longer Harappan inscriptions on record.

Decipherment: Line 1: da-śa-sa-sra-dha
Line2: a-gha-va-asta-ja
Line3: śaka-ta-kavrahan-yat-ta

Reading Line 1: dāsśuse-śrudhi
Line 2: agho vai astojan
Line 3: śaktikah vrā hanāyattah


The inscription may be explained as follows. The first line is an invocation: “Oh Gods! Hear our prayers as we make our offerings to you in your yajnas”. The second line is a description of the flood: “ We see before us floods (enemy) in eight directions ( or all around us).” The third is a cry of despair: “Powerful people find themselves at the mercy of death.”

These seem to be inspired by the experience of floods and their own helplessness before them.

Prompted by the discovery of some 30 skeletons in the ruins, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, dean of subcontinent archaeology in the 1940s and 1950s, wrote that “men, women, and children were massacred in the streets and houses, and were left lying there or, at the best, crudely covered without last rites.” To Wheeler the “massacre” tracked with verses in the Rig-Veda, a collection of ancient Hindu hymns that recounts the destruction of cities by the fierce and war like God Indra.

Today archaeologists point out that no weapons or other evidence of an attack were found at Mohenjo Daro. Some believe that skeletons were of persons who died of disease. And many archaeologists doubt that there was an invasion. Examination of skeletons from Indus cemeteries has failed to show that the original people were supplanted by new-comers with different characteristics.

No one can say with certainty why the subcontinent’s long-lived civilization came to an end, but experts suspect unruly rivers. Geological and archeological evidence, it turns out, give strong evidence that a long and devastating drought followed by devastating floods led to the abandonment of the settlements along the banks of the Indus and Saraswati rivers in western India, ending an urban civilization that had flourished, archeologists now surmise, sometime between 2,600 BC and 1,900 BC. Experts think the fluctuations of the Indus had a major impact on Mohenjo Daro. It whipped back and forth across the plains, causing floods that destroyed the agricultural base of the city. Trade and the economy were disrupted. Hundred of villages may have been destroyed by floods or by rivers carving new channels.



Reference:

National Geographic, June 2000, vol. 197, no.6.

Patten, D.W. 1966. The Biblical flood and the ice epoch. Pacific Meridian Publishing co., Seattle.

Rajaram, N.S. 1999. Sarasvati Civilization in the Harappan Seals. In ed. B.P. Radhakrishna and S.S. Merh, Vedic Sarasvati Evolutionary history of a lost river of Northwestern India. Geological Society of India, Bangalore.

http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/science/sc-harry.htm
http://sanskrit.safire.com/pdf/ORIGINS.PDF

Water qualities of Indian rivers are deteriorating. Many Rivers are under threat.

Rivers have been rendered to the level of sewage flowing drains.
by

Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi.

email: nitish.priyadarshi@gmail.com

Water is one of the most important commodities which Man has exploited than any other resource for sustenance of his life. Most of the water on this planet is stored in oceans and ice caps which is difficult to be recovered for our diverse needs. Most of our demand for water is fulfilled by rain water which gets deposited in surface and ground water resources. The quantity of this utilizable water is very much limited on the earth. Though, water is continuously purified by evaporation and precipitation, yet pollution of water has emerged as one of the most significant environmental problems of the recent times. Not only there is an increasing concern for rapidly deteriorating supply of water but the quantity of utilizable water is also fast diminishing. The causes of such a situation may be many, but gross pollution of water has its origin mainly in urbanization, industrialization, agriculture and increase in human population observed in past one and a half century.

There has been a steady deterioration in the quality of water of Indian rivers over several decades. India’s fourteen major, 55 minor and several hundred small rivers receive millions of liters of sewage, mining, industrial and agricultural wastes. Most of these rivers have been rendered to the level of sewage flowing drains. There are serious water quality problems in the cities, towns and villages using these waters. Water borne diseases are rampant, fisheries are on decline, and even cattle are not spared from the onslaught of pollution.

Present article is a collection of research report on significant rivers in this field which present a very grim picture of India’s precious water resources.

Ganga River:

River Ganga (Ganges) of India has been held in high esteem since time immemorial and Hindus from all over the world cherish the idea of a holy dip in the river under the faith that by doing so they will get rid of their sins of life. More than 400 million people live along the Ganges River. An estimated 2,000,000 persons ritually bathe daily in the river. Historically also, Ganga is the most important river of the country and beyond doubt is closely connected with the history of civilization as can be noticed from the location of the ancient cities of Hardwar, Prayag, Kashi and Patliputra at its bank. To millions of people it is sustainer of life through multitude of canal system and irrigation of the wasting load. Hundreds of the villages and even the big cities depend for their drinking water on this river. It is believed, a fact which has also been observed, that the water of Ganga never decays even for months and years when water of other rivers and agencies begins to develop bacteria and fungi within a couple of days. This self purification characteristic of Ganga is the key to the holiness and sanctity of its water. The combination of bacteriophages and large populations of people bathing in the river have apparently produced a self-purification effect, in which water-borne bacteria such as dysentery and cholera are killed off, preventing large-scale epidemics. The river also has an unusual ability to retain dissolved oxygen.
A number of investigations have been carried out on the physiochemical and biological characters of the Ganga. Lakshminarayana (1965) published a series of papers reporting the results of studies carried out at Varanasi during the period between March, 1957 and March, 1958. it was observed by him that the values of the most of the parameters decreased during rainy season while no marked variation was observed during winters and summers.
In the same year Chakraborty et.al. (1965) from Kanpur reported the water quality of Ganga at J.K. Rayon’s water intake point and at Golaghat and Bhairoghat pumping stations situated at the upstream of the river. It was concluded that the water quality gradually deteriorated as it passes from Bhairoghat pumping station to the J.K. Rayon water intake point in summers because in this stretch the river received waste waters from number of sewage drains.
A year later Saxena et.al. (1966) made a systematic survey of the chemical quantity of Ganga at Kanpur. According to the study, the biological oxygen demand, i.e. B.O.D. varied from 5.3ppm (minimum) in winter to 16.0ppm (maximum) in summer. The chloride ranged between 9.2 and 12.7 ppm and the river was found to be alkaline in nature except in rainy season. He concluded that the tanneries significantly increased the pollution load of river as they discharge huge amounts of effluents containing organic wastes and heavy metals. It was further reported that forty five tanneries, ten textile mills and several other industrial units discharged 37.15 million gallon per day of waste water generating BOD load of approximately 61630 Kg/day.
Subsequently Agarwal et.al. (1976) studied the bacteriological population of the river water and concluded that addition of untreated waste and sewage was responsible for the presence of pathogenic organisms posing threat to the residents of the Varanasi city.
Hydrobiological features of the river Ganga was studied by Pahwa and Mehrotra (1966). The authors studied a stretch of 1090 kms. of river Ganga extending from Kanpur in west to Rajmahal, in Jharkhand state, in the east. They reported that the turbidity was maximum (1100-2170 ppm) in monsoon and minimum ( less than100 ppm) during January to June. The pH of the river water ranged between 7.45 (minimum) during June to August and 8.30 (maximum) during January to May. The dissolved oxygen, i.e. D.O. count ranged from 5.0 to 10.5 ppm with maximum values during January and February. While the minimum values were recorded in monsoon.
Bhargava (1982) in a survey of total length of the river Ganga found that quality index was far above the prescribed limit at Kanpur. He further found that the Ganga water was having unusually fast regenerating capacity by bringing down B.O.D. owing to the presence of large amount of well adopted micro-organisms. According to the research Ganga is rich in polymers excreted by various species of bacteria. These polymers being excellent coagulants remove turbidity by coagulation, setting the suspended particles at the sewage discharge point.
Study carried out in 1986-87 on physico-chemical properties of river Ganga water at Buxar (Unnao) clearly revealed that extent of pollution varied in different seasons. Usually all the 23 parameters studied showed high values in summer and lower during monsoons except turbidity which was high in rainy season. Values of BOD, COD, DO and H2S were recorded high than the tolerance limits.
Study on water quality of river Ganga at Kalakankar (Pratapgarh in Uttar Pradesh) revealed that even at such a remote and undisturbed place like Kalakankar the river water was not safe for drinking and bathing. It was also noted that the river showed an alkaline trend throughout the course of study.
Upstream from Varanasi, one of the major pilgrimage sites along the river, the water is comparatively pure, having a low Biochemical oxygen demand and fecal coliform count. Studies conducted in 1983 on water samples taken from the right bank of the Ganga at Patna confirm that escheria coli (E.Coli.), fecal streptococci and vibrio cholerae organisms die two to three times faster in the Ganga than in water taken from the rivers Son and Gandak and from dug wells and tube wells in the same area.
The chemical pollution of the river Ganga in Patna city in Bihar state has been found somewhat alarming beside the storm drain, especially in the regions like Rajapur, Mandiri and Krishnaghat.
For some time now, this romantic view of the Ganges has collided with India's grim realities. During the past three decades, the country's explosive growth (at nearly 1.2 billion people, India's population is second only to China's), industrialization and rapid urbanization have put unyielding pressure on the sacred stream.

Ganga, the most sacred of rivers for Hindus, has become polluted for some years now.



Damodar River:

Today the picture of Damodar or Damuda, considered a sacred river by the local tribals,in Jharkhand State of India is quite like a sewage canal shrunken and filled with filth and rubbish, emanating obnoxious odours. It is also contaminated with toxic metals like arsenic, mercury, flouride, and lead.

The Damodar river basin is a repository of approximately 46% of the Indian coal reserves. A high demographic and industrial expansion has taken place in last three decades in the region. Exploitation of coal by underground and open cast mining has lead to a great environmental threat in this area. Besides mining, coal based industries like coal washeries, coke oven plants, coal fired thermal power plants, steel plants and other related industries in the region also greatly impart towards degradation of the environmental quality vis-a-vis human health.

It is a small rainfed river (541 km long) originating from the Khamerpet hill (1068 m), near the trijunction of Palamau, Ranchi, and Hazaribag districts of Jharkhand. It flows through the cities Ramgarh, Dhanbad, Asansol, Durgapur, Bardwan and Howrah before ultimately joining the lower Ganga (Hooghly estuary) at Shayampur, 55 Km downstram of Howrah. The river is fed by a number of tributaries at different reaches, the principal ones being Jamunia, Bokaro, Konar, Safi, Bhera, Nalkari and Barakar. The total catchment area of the basin is about 23,170 km2; of this, three-fourths of the basin lies in Jharkhand and one-fourth in West Bengal. The major part of the rainfall (82%) occurs during the monsoon season with a few sporadic rains in winter. Damodar basin is an important coal bearing area and at least seven coal fields are located in this region.
High increase in the population i.e. from 5.0 million (1951) to 14.6 million (1991) has been observed during the last four decades which is the outcome of the heavy industrialization in this basin mainly in coal sector.

Due to easy availability of coal and prime coking coal, several thermal power plants, steel plants have grown up. Discharge of uncontrolled and untreated industrial wastewater, often containing highly toxic metals is the major source of pollution of Damodar River.
Mine water and runoff through overburden material of open cast mines also contribute towards pollution of nearby water resources of the area. Huge amount of overburden materials has been dumped on the bank of the river and its tributaries, which finally get spread in the rivers especially in the rainy season. These activities have resulted in the visible deterioration of the quality of the river water.

The large scale mining operations going on this region have also adversely affected ground water table in many areas with the result that yield of water from the wells of adjoining villages has drastically reduced. Further, effluents discharged from the mine sites have also seriously polluted the underground waters of the area.

Mine waters does not have acid mine drainage problem. It may be due to the fact that coal deposits of this basin are associated with minor amounts of pyrites and contain low sulfur. Iron content in these waters are found in the range of 1 to 6 mg/l. Though it is not alarming but it may be toxic to some aquatic species. Mine waters are generally bacterially contaminated which is clear from the value lying in the range of 100 to 2500.
Heavy metals like manganese, chromium, lead, arsenic, mercury, floride, cadmium, and copper are also found in the sediments and water of Damodar River and its tributaries like Safi, Nalkari, Bhera Rivers etc. Permian coal of this area contains all these toxic elements in considerable amount. Presence of lead is high above the alarming level i.e. 300 ppm (parts per million) in the coals of North Karanpura coal field.

The study warned that long term exposure to the lead present in that area might result in general weakness, anorexia, dyspepsia, metallic taste in the mouth, headache, drowsiness, high blood pressure and anaemia etc.

The Damodar sediments are deficient in calcium and magnesium and rich in potassium concentration. Titanium and iron are the dominant heavy metals followed by manganese, zinc, copper, chromium, lead, arsenic, and mercury. Other heavy metal like strontium shows more or less uniform concentration throughout the basin. Average concentration of strontium in the sediments of the river is 130 ppm. Silica is also high in the sediments of Damodar River and its tributary. The value is 28ppm. Arsenic in the water ranges from 0.001 to 0.006 mg/l, mercury ranges from 0.0002 to 0.0004 mg/l, floride ranges from 1 to 3 mg/l.

The seven thermal power plants in the Damodar valley (three of which, with a combined installed capacity of about 1,800 mw, belong to the DVC) consume between 3,000 and 8,000 tonnes of coal a day and as much as 50 per cent of the total solids generated is in the form of flyash. Yet, there is little effort to manage the waste. This is obvious from the fact that very few DVC units, which are better managed than those run by the state electricity boards, have electrostatic precipitators (ESPS). Of the six units of the DVC's Chandrapura Thermal Power Plant in Giridih district, only one has an ESP, while the others make do with old mechanical dust collectors. As these plants are located on the banks of the river, the flyash eventually finds its way into the water.Disposal of solid waste, or bottom ash, from boilers degrades the river even more. The bottom ash is supposed to be mixed with water to form slurry which is then drained into ash ponds. Most of the ponds are full and in several cases drainage pipes are choked. The slurry is discharged into the river.

The people who live in the vicinity of the Damodar are the worst affected. The river and its tributaries are the largest sources of drinking water for the huge population that lives in the valley. On April 2, 1990 about 200,000 litres of furnace oil spilled into the Damodar river from the Bokaro Steel Plant. The oil travelled about 150 km downstream to Durgapur and for at least a week after the incident, the five million people in the area drank contaminated water. The water from the river that the people drank was unfit for human consumption, with oil levels 40-80 times higher than the maximum permissible value of 0.03 mg/l.

It is obvious that due to extensive coal mining and vigorous growth of industries in this area water resources have been badly contaminated. The habitants have, however, been compromising by taking contaminated and sometimes polluted water, as there is no alternate source of drinking water. Thus, a sizeable populace suffers from water borne diseases. As per the health survey of about 3 lakh population, the most common diseases are dysentery, diarrhoea, skin infection, worm infection, jaundice, and typhoid. Dysentery and skin infections occur in high percentage in the area. If proper steps are not taken up the total population mostly tribals will be on the verge of extinction.


Subarnrekha River:

Translated literally, Subarnarekha means 'streak of gold'. With a drainage area of 1.93 million ha this smallest of India's major inter-state river basins is a mute host to effluents from various uranium mining and processing units. While most rivers in the country are classified -- depending on the pollution load -- on a 'best designated use’ basis, the Subarnarekha defies any classification, as the existing parameters do not include radioactivity.The rain-fed Subarnarekha originates 15 kms south of Ranchi on the Chhotanagpur plateau draining the states of Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal before entering the Bay of Bengal. The total length of the river is 450 kms and its important tributaries include the Raru, Kanchi, Karkari, Kharkai, Garra and Sankh rivers.The only streaks visible in the river are those of domestic, industrial or - incredibly - radioactive pollution. Subarnarekha's rich resource base has spelled doom for the basin. Between Mayurbhanj and Singhbhum districts, on the right banks of the Subarnarekha, are the country’s richest copper deposits. The proliferation of unplanned and unregulated mining and mineral processing industries has led to a devastating environmental degradation of the region. Improper mining practices have led to uncontrolled dumping of overburden (rock and soil extracted while mining) and mine tailings. During monsoons, this exposed earth flows into the river, increasing suspended solid and heavy metal load in the water, silting the dams and reservoirs. Quarrying of construction material, such as granite, basalt, quartzite, dolerite, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, gravel, and even sand, has created vast stretches of wasteland in the river basin. Used and abandoned mines and quarries are a source of mineral wastewater and suspended solids.Subarnarekha also has to bear radioactive waste that enters the river through seepage from tailing ponds of the Uranium Corporation of India at Jadugoda. It has three productive uranium mines, all within a 5 km radius: Jadugoda, Batin and Narwapahar. The uranium ore is mined from underground and brought to the surface. Uranium is then extracted and processed to make 'yellow cake', an ingredient used to fuel nuclear plants. What is left behind are 'tailings' or effluents comprising radioactive products, which are mixed into slurry and pumped into tailing ponds. These ponds, each covering about 160 ha of land and about 30 metres deep are situated between adjoining villages.No standards have been met in their construction and no measures taken to control the emissions. Overflow and seepage from the tailing ponds ultimately ends into the streams that feed Subarnarekha. These radiations pose the greatest threat to human health, as they harm living cells, often leading to genetic mutation, cancer and slow death.Subarnarekha is the lifeline of tribal communities inhabiting the Chhotanagpur belt. Once these communities made a living out of the river's gold and fish. But today the polluted Subarnarekha has little to offer. Between 5,000-6,000 families of local tribals, including the fishing community of Dharas, residing on the riverbanks from Mango in Jamshedpur to Bharagora, have been affected by the river’s pollution.Oil and slug deposits on the riverbed deter the growth of moss and fungi, vital food for fish, hindering the movement of Hilsa fish from the Bay of Bengal to Ghatsila. Even sweet water fish like sol die in large numbers during their breeding season. Reports reveal that villages in the region around Ghatsila such as Kalikapara, Royam, Jadugoda, Aminagar, Benasol and Baraghat are suffering from skin diseases. The male fertility rate has also declined. Unfortunately, people have not been active in protecting the river as yet, when they could do well and take an example from other social movements in other river basins.

Yamuna River:

Originating at Yamunotri and merging with river Ganga at Allahabd, river Yamuna, though a major river of Uttar Pradesh also passes through Delhi, the capital of country. According to different research report, the river is badly polluted at Delhi, Mathura, Agra and Allahabad as the BOD values ranged from 1.6 mg/lit to 31.3 mg/l in different seasons while the total coliform count ranged between 1820 to 63,500. High percentage of cadmium, copper and zinc were reported between Dakpathar and Agra, which clearly indicates that pollution load increases as the river receives industrial effluents along its course.

The major tributaries of the river are Tons, Betwa, Chambal, Ken and Sindh and these together contribute 70.9% of the catchment area and balance 29.1% is the direct drainage of main River and smaller tributaries. On the basis of area, the catchment basin of Yamuna amounts to 40.2% of the Ganga Basin and 10.7% of the country.

Yamuna is the sub-basin of the Ganga river system. Out of the total catchment’s area of 861404 sq km of the Ganga basin, the Yamuna River and its catchment together contribute to a total of 345848 sq. km area which 40.14% of total Ganga River Basin (CPCB, 1980-81; CPCB, 1982-83). It is a large basin covering seven Indian states. The river water is used for both abstractive and in stream uses like irrigation, domestic water supply, industrial etc. It has been subjected to over exploitation, both in quantity and quality. Given that a large population is dependent on the river, it is of significance to
preserve its water quality. The river is polluted by both point and non-point sources, where National Capital Territory (NCT) – Delhi is the major contributor, followed by Agra and Mathura. Approximately, 85% of the total pollution is from domestic source. The condition deteriorates further due to significant water abstraction which reduces the dilution capacity of the river. The stretch between Wazirabad barrage and Chambal river confluence is critically polluted and 22km of Delhi stretch is the maximum polluted amongst all.

Although the river is polluted almost throughout its journey in plains but maximum of pollution occurs during its journey through NCT. The main sources of pollution in NCT are:
•Rising density of human population on the river banks and poor sanitation practices by residents;
•untreated domestic wastewater;
•untreated industrial effluents;
•diffuse pollution (agricultural runoffs; dead body dumping and cattle washing)
•undetected and untreated pesticide residues leave a toxic mark all across the river
•religious activity and immersion of idols.

Monitoring data shows that pollution measured in terms of BOD load has increased 2.5 times from 1980-2005. BOD load, which was 117 tonnes per day (tpd) in 1980 increased to 276 tpd in 2005. The river has no fresh water flow for virtually nine months. Delhi impounds water at the barrage constructed at Wazirabad. Water that flows subsequently is only sewage and waste .The anaerobic condition in the river is frequently observed and as evident from the presence of masses of rising sludge from the bottom, gas bubbles and floating solids on the surface (CPCB, 2000).

Najafgarh drain of NCT – Delhi is the biggest polluter of River Yamuna, which
contributes about 26% (year 2001) to 33% 22 (year 2000) of total BOD load and
48% (year 2003) to 52% (year 2001) of total discharge that joins Yamuna river
and canal at Delhi by various drains. There are 70 sub drains that join main Najafgarh Drain. The study indicated that the total BOD load received by Najafgarh Drain through sub-drains was 136 TPD, whereas the BOD load at the terminal end of the Najafgarh Drain was 83 TPD only. This reduction may be contributed by biodegradation, deposition of setllable material at the bottom and diversion of drain water for irrigation etc.

The significant measure to be undertaken for abatement of pollution in river
Yamuna areas below:
▪ Industries should treat their effluents so as to confirm the specified
requirements.
▪ To reduce over exploitation of river water for various human activities,
adoption of water harvesting system on large scale becoming necessary.
▪ Construction of small barrages in the entire Yamuna river stretch will also
solve the water scarcity problem.
▪ Disposal of garbage, solid, semi-solid, waste into river, its tributaries and
drains should be restricted.
▪ Community participation in various Yamuna water quality restoration
programme should be encouraged.

Gomati River:

River Gomati an important tributary of river Ganga and a perennial river of Awadh plains runs across the major part of Uttar Pradesh covering nine districts and a distance of approximately 940 kms. Originating from Madhoganj Tanda village in Pilibhit districts, it passes through the districts of Shahjahanpur, Kheri, Hardoi, Sitapur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Sultanpur, Jaunpur and ultimately merges in river Ganga near Saidpur town of district Ghazipur. During its course, it receives huge quantities untreated sewage and industrial wastes which alter the physico-chemical characteristics of river water significantly. It was found that the Gomati at Lucknow was polluted with copper, zinc and chromium. The concentration of metals was found much higher than the permissible limits and it was suggested that the river water was not safe for human usage without proper treatment. Physico-chemical parameters and microbial counts (MPN) clearly revealed that river was grossly polluted at Lucknow and Jaunpur due to discharge of large quantities of raw sewage and industrial wastes. Studies conducted on the tributaries of river Gomati viz. Sarayan at Sitapur and Gone at Kamalapur indicated that both of them were significantly polluted due to discharge of sugar mill effluent and distillery waste water in their catchment areas.

Historically, Gomati has served as a waterway, source of fish and water and provided livelihood to dwellers along the Avadh plains. Because of this important role, a number of big and small towns developed on its banks. The growing inflow of pollutants in the river now has destabilised its self-purification mechanism. Result: Water becoming unsafe for use. Two kinds of wastes are discharged into the river - organic and inorganic. The bacterial pollution in the river is increasing due to the discharge of organic wastes - human excreta, sewage waste, polythenes, municipal garbage and toxic discharge from the factories which flow into the storm drains, mixing with common water and subsequently posing a serious threat to the human population.

Heavy metals like, copper, zinc, magnesium iron and chromium have been found in large quantities in the river water. However their percentages differ in summers and winters.

Kuttiadi River (Kerala):

Kuttiadi River originates from the Narikota ranges on the western slope of the Wynad hills, a part of Western Ghats, at an elevation of 1220 meters above the mean sea level. The river flows through Badagara, Quilandy and Kozhikode Taluks in Kerala state before it falls into the Arabian Sea at Kottakal 7 km south of Badagara.

In general the water quality of Kuttiadi River depends significantly on the following factors: seasons, saline water intrusion, demographic pressure around the river, and topography. The river showed exceptionally low levels of Dissolved Oxygen at 8 km upstream (near Payyoli canal) where a stream carrying domestic and industrial wastes joins the river. Exceptionally high level of total hardness were recorded in waters collected near Payyoli canal. Exceptionally high levels of zinc were recorded in samples collected near Payyoli canal. The concentration of copper increased gradually as the river approached the sea.

Sabarmati River:

The river rises in the South-Western spurs of Aravali hills. It traverse through Sabarkantha, Ahmedabad, and Kheda districts and finally discharges into the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay). Sabarmati River rises in the Aravali hills, which roughly mark the western boundary of Udaipur District, i.e. Mount Abu area, and flows in a south-westerly direction. The main tributaries of the Sabarmati river are Wakal river and the Sei Nadi, which also rise in the Aravali hill range west of Udaipur city and flow south-westwards in courses generally parallel to the Sabarmati river, up to their confluence with the river (in Gujarat).

Ahmedabad, seventh largest populous city of India and Commercial Capital of Gujarat State has unique identity recognize by River Sabarmati. It’s potential to provide city level social infrastructure and recreation facilities lie untapped. Though it is a major source of water for the city and despite the building of a major barrage to retain water, except for a few months during the monsoon the river is dry. Sewage contaminated storm water out-falls and the dumping of industrial waste pose a major health and environmental hazard. Though the riverbanks and bed provide a place to stay and source of livelihood for many poor citizens, the riverbank slums are disastrously flood prone and lack basic infrastructure services. The slums located along the riverbed also pose a major impediment to efficient management of monsoon flood sin the river.

It is mainly a dumping ground of domestic, textile, chemical, dye and industrial wastes of units located on or near the river bank. River has been studied to its entire health by various workers. pH was always in alkaline range. The alkalinity was remarkably high and D.O. content was very low at most of the sites. The water was rich in chloride, phosphate, nitrate and COD indicating its polluted nature. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has also reported highest volumes of faecal coliform (FC) — a bacteria present in human and animal excreta — in the country in Sabarmati. FC in these stretches is measured to be 2.8 million Most Probable Number (MPN) in every 100 ml of the river.

The major polluting units along the rivers include distilleries, sugar, textile, electroplating, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper mills, tanneries, dyes and dye intermediates, petrochemicals and steel plants, among others. According to CPCB, the major reason for polluted river stretches in Gujarat is the effluent directly discharged by the factories into these water bodies.

An observation supported by the fact that the Amlakhadi, which meets Narmada near Bharuch district, has been reduced to an effluent channel of over 1,500 chemical units in Ankleshwar, Panoli, Vilayat, Dahej and Jhagadia.


Purna River:

This river flows through Valsad in Gujrat state. The water of this river, irrespective of season was always muddy due to the flushing character of the river. pH was always alkaline through out the flow. Dissolved oxygen was very long except in spring. The high value of phosphate and silicate revealed the amount of industrial effluents released into the rivers. The alarmingly high levels of lead (0.2 to 1.08 ppm) was due to the burning of gasoline, or by the petrol operated vehicles or industries.

Khan River:

Khan river is the main water body of the study area. The drainage of the city is provided by two small rivers, Khan and Sarswati. Khan river, a tributary of Shipra river emerges near Umaria village 11 km South of Indore and flows through heart of city. traveling of distance of around 50 km, it confluences in to Shipra river at Ujjain.

Years before, Khan was a flowing river in Indore in Madhya Pradesh. Due to urbanization of the city the river has become a waste water disposal site. The growth of the city was fairly rapid during the past few years, as a consequence of which the waste entering into the river has increased at an enormous rate. At present it has been fully converted into a ‘Nallah’.

The maximum value of dissolved solids was recorded in July due to less flow of water and high impurities because rains did not pours much at that time. The pH value of the water is above 8 at all the sites. High value of chlorides was found because of the contamination of water due to sewage of the city. The relative higher hardness was recorded at all the places. It is due to the sewage effluent and industrial waste.

Satluj River:

The river Satluj, one of the main rivers of the Punjab, originates from ‘Mansarovar’ Lake, in Tibet, enters Punjab near Bhakra, flows through this state to finally join the river Beas at Harike. During its course, it get heavily polluted by domestic sewage, agricultural runoff and untreated or inadequately treated industrial effluents. Samples analyzed near industrial Ludhiana town showed high concentration of zinc, lead, and mercury, while chromium and cadmium were found to be absent. Zinc, lead, and mercury were also found to be present in both in water and sediment near Jalandhar city. In general terms, concentration of heavy metals were found to be considerably high in sediments than in water. The effluents being discharged by Budha Nalah into Satluj River over the years has attained alarming proportions causing a drastic decline in the number of fish species besides showing high concentration of heavy metal.

Ludhiana has 250 large and medium-scale units and 41,116 small-scale units. Electroplating, heat treatment, cycle manufacturing, hosiery, machine parts, vegetable oils, dyeing processes and chemical industries are the major industries. They use huge quantities of chemicals, various types of dyes, chrome, nickel and cyanide. With poor effluent treatment facilities, traces of these heavy metals end up in Budha Nalah and thus in the river. In the process, even groundwater is contaminated, posing a public issue as well.

It's no secret that rivers in Punjab are heavily polluted. Now, the comptroller and auditor general's (CAG) office, in its latest report, has expressed concern over the degradation of state rivers and blamed government for not doing enough to save them.

The CAG report on " Water Pollution in India" said the rivers and groundwater in the state were highly polluted with the government not being able to effectively implement National River Conservation Project (NCRP) in six cities, Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Phagwara, Phillaur, Kapurthala and Sultanpur Lodhi, which were situated on banks of the Satluj river.


Krishna and Koyana River:

Krishna river rises in the western ghats of India at an altitude of 1337 m. near Mahabaleshwar, about 64 km from the Arabian sea. It is one of the longest rivers in India. The Krishna river is around 1,290 km in length. It flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh before merging in the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh. The principle tributaries of the Krishna River includes Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Ghataprabha, Yerla, Warna, Dindi, Musi, Tungabhadra and Dudhganga rivers. The river basin is approximately 200 meter deep. A tributary of Krishna river Koyana also originates in the western ghats and finally meets the river Krishna at Karad in frontal confluence. River Krishna is dying at an increasing rate. The river receives the waste from the large number of cities including Hyderabad, Pune, Satara, Kolhapur, Kurnool and many more. The sewages from the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad flows into it. Large number of industrial units operates from the river basin which are the main reason for the water pollution in the Krishna river.

The study found that, the Satara-Sangli stretch of the Krishna river is polluted grossly by the human-induced activities in the subwatersheds. The factors for acute pollution of water are:
The intensive use of fertilisers and pesticides in the agricultural land, growth of medium to big size sugar and distillery factories and very high growth of population leading to high domestic load from urban setup.
Turbidity values increased and the same results were witnessed after 1990 for chemical parameters such as BOD, COD, Na, Mg, Ca, Cl, and sulphate.
Of all sources, the share of agriculture to water consumption and water pollution was the highest. Agricultural sources contributed to 91% of total waste discharge while the same for domestic and industrial sources were 4.5% each.


Iron and zinc was present in considerable quantity in both the rivers. Copper concentration varied from 10 to 150 µg/lt. in the rivers. Lead concentration was found to be higher than the concentration of copper in the Krishna river. Nickel showed higher variation at all the sites from nil to 200µg/lt. in the river Krishna. Low concentration ranging from 10µg/lt. to 50 µg/lt. was noted in the river Koyana. The Koyna river is polluted in Karad due to the sewage released from Karad.



Reference:

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Bhargava, D.S.1982. Purification power of the Ganges unmatched. L.S.T. Bull. 34. 52.


Chakraborty, R.N., Saxena, K.L. and Khan, A.Q. 1965. Stream pollution and its effect on water supply. A report of survey, Proc. Symp. Problems in Water treatment. Oct. 29-30, Nagpur. 211-219.



CPCB, 1980–81. The Ganga River—Part I—The Yamuna basin, ADSORBS/2, Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, India.

CPCB, 1982–83. Assimilation capacity of point pollution load, CUPS/12, Central Pollution Control Board, Delhi, India.

CPCB, 2000. Status of water quality of river Yamuna and drains adjoining river Yamuna in Delhi. Information submitted to the Hon’ble Supreme Court.

Garg, S.L et.al, 2000. Pollution studies on the Khan river at Indore. , in Pollution and Biomonitoring of Indian Rivers. Ed. Dr. R.K. Trivedy, pp. 154-158.

Kaur, H. et al. 2000. Occurrence of heavy metals in the water and sediment of the river Satluj in Punjab, , in Pollution and Biomonitoring of Indian Rivers. Ed. Dr. R.K. Trivedy, pp. 176-180.

Lakshminarayana, J.S.S. 1965. studies of the phytoplankton of the river Ganges, Varanasi, India, Part-I, Physico chemical characteristics of River Ganga. Hydrobiologia. 25. 119-175.

Manoj, E. and Ragothaman, G. 2000. Assessment of the water quality of Purna river, Valsad (Gujarat) with special reference to the heavy metal pollution, in Pollution and Biomonitoring of Indian Rivers. Ed. Dr. R.K. Trivedy, pp. 126-129.

Pahwa, D.V. and Mehrotra, S.N., 1966. Observations on fluctuation in the abundance of plankton in relation to certain hydrobiological vonditions of river Ganges. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., India, Sec. 36B (2). 157-89.

Priyadarshi, N.: Arsenic in Damodar poisoning West Bengal. Indian Express, July 12, 1998.
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Saxena, K.L., Chakraborty, A.K., Khan, A.Q., Chattopadhayay, R.N. and Chandra, H. 1966. Pollution study of river near Kanpur. Indian, J. environ. Hlth. 8. 270.

Trivedy, R.K., Khatavkar, S.D. and Arjugade, B.L. 2000. Heavy metal pollution in the River Krishna and Koyana in Maharashtra, India, in Pollution and Biomonitoring of Indian Rivers. Ed. Dr. R.K. Trivedy. pp. 327-341.



http://fore.research.yale.edu/information/Yamuna/Current_Condition_of_Yamuna_River.pdf

http://www.cpcb.nic.in/newitems/11.pdf

http://www.thepetitionsite.com/1/pollutants-in-gomati-destabilising-river/

http://watterpollution.blogspot.com/2009/08/information-of-sabarmati-river.html

http://www.ecoindia.com/rivers/krishna.html

http://www.indiawaterportal.org/node/816

http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-03-29/chandigarh/27275228_1_fish-species-effluents-heavy-metal

http://www.cleanganga.com/articles/december/satluj.php